九十五条论纲 马丁路德（英文）

Disputation of Doctor Martin Luther
on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences
by Dr. Martin Luther (1517)
　

Published in:
Works of Martin Luther:
Adolph Spaeth, L.D. Reed, Henry Eyster Jacobs, et Al., Trans. & Eds.
(Philadelphia: A. J. Holman Company, 1915), Vol.1, pp. 29-38
_______________

　

Out of love for the truth and the desire to bring it to light, the following propositions will be discussed at Wittenberg, under the presidency of the Reverend Father Martin Luther, Master of Arts and of Sacred Theology, and Lecturer in Ordinary on the same at that place. Wherefore he requests that those who are unable to be present and debate orally with us, may do so by letter.

In the Name our Lord Jesus Christ. Amen.

1. Our Lord and Master Jesus Christ, when He said Poenitentiam agite, willed that the whole life of believers should be repentance.

2. This word cannot be understood to mean sacramental penance, i.e., confession and satisfaction, which is administered by the priests.

3. Yet it means not inward repentance only; nay, there is no inward repentance which does not outwardly work divers mortifications of the flesh.

4. The penalty [of sin], therefore, continues so long as hatred of self continues; for this is the true inward repentance, and continues until our entrance into the kingdom of heaven.

5. The pope does not intend to remit, and cannot remit any penalties other than those which he has imposed either by his own authority or by that of the Canons.

6. The pope cannot remit any guilt, except by declaring that it has been remitted by God and by assenting to God's remission; though, to be sure, he may grant remission in cases reserved to his judgment. If his right to grant remission in such cases were despised, the guilt would remain entirely unforgiven.

7. God remits guilt to no one whom He does not, at the same time, humble in all things and bring into subjection to His vicar, the priest.

8. The penitential canons are imposed only on the living, and, according to them, nothing should be imposed on the dying.

9. Therefore the Holy Spirit in the pope is kind to us, because in his decrees he always makes exception of the article of death and of necessity.

10. Ignorant and wicked are the doings of those priests who, in the case of the dying, reserve canonical penances for purgatory.

11. This changing of the canonical penalty to the penalty of purgatory is quite evidently one of the tares that were sown while the bishops slept.

12. In former times the canonical penalties were imposed not after, but before absolution, as tests of true contrition.

13. The dying are freed by death from all penalties; they are already dead to canonical rules, and have a right to be released from them.

14. The imperfect health [of soul], that is to say, the imperfect love, of the dying brings with it, of necessity, great fear; and the smaller the love, the greater is the fear.

15. This fear and horror is sufficient of itself alone (to say nothing of other things) to constitute the penalty of purgatory, since it is very near to the horror of despair.

16. Hell, purgatory, and heaven seem to differ as do despair, almost-despair, and the assurance of safety.

17. With souls in purgatory it seems necessary that horror should grow less and love increase.

18. It seems unproved, either by reason or Scripture, that they are outside the state of merit, that is to say, of increasing love.

19. Again, it seems unproved that they, or at least that all of them, are certain or assured of their own blessedness, though we may be quite certain of it.

20. Therefore by "full remission of all penalties" the pope means not actually "of all," but only of those imposed by himself.

21. Therefore those preachers of indulgences are in error, who say that by the pope's indulgences a man is freed from every penalty, and saved;

22. Whereas he remits to souls in purgatory no penalty which, according to the canons, they would have had to pay in this life.

23. If it is at all possible to grant to any one the remission of all penalties whatsoever, it is certain that this remission can be granted only to the most perfect, that is, to the very fewest.

24. It must needs be, therefore, that the greater part of the people are deceived by that indiscriminate and highsounding promise of release from penalty.

25. The power which the pope has, in a general way, over purgatory, is just like the power which any bishop or curate has, in a special way, within his own diocese or parish.

26. The pope does well when he grants remission to souls [in purgatory], not by the power of the keys (which he does not possess), but by way of intercession.

27. They preach man who say that so soon as the penny jingles into the money-box, the soul flies out [of purgatory].

28. It is certain that when the penny jingles into the money-box, gain and avarice can be increased, but the result of the intercession of the Church is in the power of God alone.

29. Who knows whether all the souls in purgatory wish to be bought out of it, as in the legend of Sts. Severinus and Paschal.

30. No one is sure that his own contrition is sincere; much less that he has attained full remission.

31. Rare as is the man that is truly penitent, so rare is also the man who truly buys indulgences, i.e., such men are most rare.

32. They will be condemned eternally, together with their teachers, who believe themselves sure of their salvation because they have letters of pardon.

33. Men must be on their guard against those who say that the pope's pardons are that inestimable gift of God by which man is reconciled to Him;

34. For these "graces of pardon" concern only the penalties of sacramental satisfaction, and these are appointed by man.

35. They preach no Christian doctrine who teach that contrition is not necessary in those who intend to buy souls out of purgatory or to buy confessionalia.

36. Every truly repentant Christian has a right to full remission of penalty and guilt, even without letters of pardon.

37. Every true Christian, whether living or dead, has part in all the blessings of Christ and the Church; and this is granted him by God, even without letters of pardon.

38. Nevertheless, the remission and participation [in the blessings of the Church] which are granted by the pope are in no way to be despised, for they are, as I have said, the declaration of divine remission.

39. It is most difficult, even for the very keenest theologians, at one and the same time to commend to the people the abundance of pardons and [the need of] true contrition.

40. True contrition seeks and loves penalties, but liberal pardons only relax penalties and cause them to be hated, or at least, furnish an occasion [for hating them].

41. Apostolic pardons are to be preached with caution, lest the people may falsely think them preferable to other good works of love.

42. Christians are to be taught that the pope does not intend the buying of pardons to be compared in any way to works of mercy.

43. Christians are to be taught that he who gives to the poor or lends to the needy does a better work than buying pardons;

44. Because love grows by works of love, and man becomes better; but by pardons man does not grow better, only more free from penalty.

45. 45. Christians are to be taught that he who sees a man in need, and passes him by, and gives [his money] for pardons, purchases not the indulgences of the pope, but the indignation of God.

46. Christians are to be taught that unless they have more than they need, they are bound to keep back what is necessary for their own families, and by no means to squander it on pardons.

47. Christians are to be taught that the buying of pardons is a matter of free will, and not of commandment.

48. Christians are to be taught that the pope, in granting pardons, needs, and therefore desires, their devout prayer for him more than the money they bring.

49. Christians are to be taught that the pope's pardons are useful, if they do not put their trust in them; but altogether harmful, if through them they lose their fear of God.

50. Christians are to be taught that if the pope knew the exactions of the pardon-preachers, he would rather that St. Peter's church should go to ashes, than that it should be built up with the skin, flesh and bones of his sheep.

51. Christians are to be taught that it would be the pope's wish, as it is his duty, to give of his own money to very many of those from whom certain hawkers of pardons cajole money, even though the church of St. Peter might have to be sold.

52. The assurance of salvation by letters of pardon is vain, even though the commissary, nay, even though the pope himself, were to stake his soul upon it.

53. They are enemies of Christ and of the pope, who bid the Word of God be altogether silent in some Churches, in order that pardons may be preached in others.

54. Injury is done the Word of God when, in the same sermon, an equal or a longer time is spent on pardons than on this Word.

55. It must be the intention of the pope that if pardons, which are a very small thing, are celebrated with one bell, with single processions and ceremonies, then the Gospel, which is the very greatest thing, should be preached with a hundred bells, a hundred processions, a hundred ceremonies.

56. The "treasures of the Church," out of which the pope. grants indulgences, are not sufficiently named or known among the people of Christ.

57. That they are not temporal treasures is certainly evident, for many of the vendors do not pour out such treasures so easily, but only gather them.

58. Nor are they the merits of Christ and the Saints, for even without the pope, these always work grace for the inner man, and the cross, death, and hell for the outward man.

59. St. Lawrence said that the treasures of the Church were the Church's poor, but he spoke according to the usage of the word in his own time.

60. Without rashness we say that the keys of the Church, given by Christ's merit, are that treasure;

61. For it is clear that for the remission of penalties and of reserved cases, the power of the pope is of itself sufficient.

62. The true treasure of the Church is the Most Holy Gospel of the glory and the grace of God.

63. But this treasure is naturally most odious, for it makes the first to be last.

64. On the other hand, the treasure of indulgences is naturally most acceptable, for it makes the last to be first.

65. Therefore the treasures of the Gospel are nets with which they formerly were wont to fish for men of riches.

66. The treasures of the indulgences are nets with which they now fish for the riches of men.

67. The indulgences which the preachers cry as the "greatest graces" are known to be truly such, in so far as they promote gain.

68. Yet they are in truth the very smallest graces compared with the grace of God and the piety of the Cross.

69. Bishops and curates are bound to admit the commissaries of apostolic pardons, with all reverence.

70. But still more are they bound to strain all their eyes and attend with all their ears, lest these men preach their own dreams instead of the commission of the pope.

71. He who speaks against the truth of apostolic pardons, let him be anathema and accursed!

72. But he who guards against the lust and license of the pardon-preachers, let him be blessed!

73. The pope justly thunders against those who, by any art, contrive the injury of the traffic in pardons.

74. But much more does he intend to thunder against those who use the pretext of pardons to contrive the injury of holy love and truth.

75. To think the papal pardons so great that they could absolve a man even if he had committed an impossible sin and violated the Mother of God -- this is madness.

76. We say, on the contrary, that the papal pardons are not able to remove the very least of venial sins, so far as its guilt is concerned.

77. It is said that even St. Peter, if he were now Pope, could not bestow greater graces; this is blasphemy against St. Peter and against the pope.

78. We say, on the contrary, that even the present pope, and any pope at all, has greater graces at his disposal; to wit, the Gospel, powers, gifts of healing, etc., as it is written in I. Corinthians xii.

79. To say that the cross, emblazoned with the papal arms, which is set up [by the preachers of indulgences], is of equal worth with the Cross of Christ, is blasphemy.

80. The bishops, curates and theologians who allow such talk to be spread among the people, will have an account to render.

81. This unbridled preaching of pardons makes it no easy matter, even for learned men, to rescue the reverence due to the pope from slander, or even from the shrewd questionings of the laity.

82. To wit: -- "Why does not the pope empty purgatory, for the sake of holy love and of the dire need of the souls that are there, if he redeems an infinite number of souls for the sake of miserable money with which to build a Church? The former reasons would be most just; the latter is most trivial."

83. Again: -- "Why are mortuary and anniversary masses for the dead continued, and why does he not return or permit the withdrawal of the endowments founded on their behalf, since it is wrong to pray for the redeemed?"

84. Again: -- "What is this new piety of God and the pope, that for money they allow a man who is impious and their enemy to buy out of purgatory the pious soul of a friend of God, and do not rather, because of that pious and beloved soul's own need, free it for pure love's sake?"

85. Again: -- "Why are the penitential canons long since in actual fact and through disuse abrogated and dead, now satisfied by the granting of indulgences, as though they were still alive and in force?"

86. Again: -- "Why does not the pope, whose wealth is to-day greater than the riches of the richest, build just this one church of St. Peter with his own money, rather than with the money of poor believers?"

87. Again: -- "What is it that the pope remits, and what participation does he grant to those who, by perfect contrition, have a right to full remission and participation?"

88. Again: -- "What greater blessing could come to the Church than if the pope were to do a hundred times a day what he now does once, and bestow on every believer these remissions and participations?"

89. "Since the pope, by his pardons, seeks the salvation of souls rather than money, why does he suspend the indulgences and pardons granted heretofore, since these have equal efficacy?"

90. To repress these arguments and scruples of the laity by force alone, and not to resolve them by giving reasons, is to expose the Church and the pope to the ridicule of their enemies, and to make Christians unhappy.

91. If, therefore, pardons were preached according to the spirit and mind of the pope, all these doubts would be readily resolved; nay, they would not exist.

92. Away, then, with all those prophets who say to the people of Christ, "Peace, peace," and there is no peace!

93. Blessed be all those prophets who say to the people of Christ, "Cross, cross," and there is no cross!

94. Christians are to be exhorted that they be diligent in following Christ, their Head, through penalties, deaths, and hell;

95. And thus be confident of entering into heaven rather through many tribulations, than through the assurance of peace.


　

单身基督徒弟兄为未来妻子的祷告

主啊，教导我学会耐心，
为我预备您想要赐给我的姐妹。
主啊，除去我作为单身的孤独感，
让那些关心我的人陪伴在我周围。
主啊，安慰我，让我脱离因心碎和失败人际关系而有的痛苦。
让我知道我所做错的，以便我不再重复我的错误。

主啊，帮助我在生命中做出更好的决定。
帮助我保守我的性纯洁，直到我结婚的那一天。
主啊，帮助我抵挡一切的诱惑和邪恶，
塑造我成为你强壮，忠实的仆人。
主啊，帮助我解决过去的问题，以便我能领导一段新的生活。
帮助我改掉我可能有的任何的坏习惯。
主啊，激励我为自己做出积极的改变。
当时候合适时，让我知道您为我预备的那位姐妹。
当我们发现彼此时，让我们全心归荣耀于您，
因为您是慈爱全能、值得颂赞的全能真神。
奉主耶稣的圣名祷告，阿们！
单身基督徒姐妹为未来丈夫的祷告
天父，作为渴望一位丈夫的单身基督徒姐妹，我坦然无惧地来到你施恩的宝座前，承认你的话语遍及我的生命。
　　天父，你告诉我们要靠着你喜乐，并且你会成全我们内心的所求。我祈求你帮助我每天在你里面有喜乐，我感谢你，不只是因为你满足了我的需要，也因你祝福我拥有渴望一位虔诚丈夫的心。
　　天父，你说让我们把所要的告诉你。我向你祈求的不是任何一个人，我祈求的是最适合我的丈夫。
　　天父，我祈求他是一个能够尽心、尽性、尽力、尽意爱你的人；我祈求他是一个先寻求你的国度和你的一切公义，并你完美旨意的人；我祈求他是一个祷告的人，是一个频繁热切地恳求你的人。
　　天父，随着他爱你并服事你，我祈求他也会在我们日后一起生活的日子里，正如基督爱并珍惜他的教会一样，他也能爱我并珍惜我。
　　天父，我也祈求你预备我做一个好妻子，也预备他做一位好丈夫，直到你将我与他结合。在你预备我们的期间里，祈求你以你美好的形象塑造我们，按你对我们作为丈夫和妻子的所愿。
　　天父，你的话语告诉我们，任何抵挡我们的都不会昌盛。所以，我奉耶稣基督的名，捆绑、解除撒但的各样武器，就是那些用来阻止你为我预备的最适合我的丈夫的黑暗势力。
　　天父，我也祈求你，在这段时间里，帮助我耐心等候你做成你完美的工。帮助我不要变得不耐烦，不要超越你为我预备丈夫的计划。我也祈求你帮助我不要容忍我的私欲，帮助我耐心地等候你。我感谢你天父，你是我的牧者。作为你的羊，让我只聆听你的声音，不聆听陌生人（撒但）的声音，不要让我被错误的灵吸引走向错误的方向。
　　天父，正如利百加第一次看到以撒便知道他是她的丈夫一样，我祈求你，让我看到他时，也有印证。帮助我不要被恶魔欺骗，不要被眼目的情欲或肉体的情欲所诱导。但是，在适当的时候，以你的眼和圣灵的真理来引导、指示我走向正确的丈夫。
　　天父，在我结婚前，帮助我不要让恶者加给我错误的想法，视单身基督徒的生活为无聊的、不完整的、不称心的。我祈求你的帮助，通过耶稣基督，让我看到我的生活的完全。
　　天父，我祈求你填满我内心每一处空虚和孤独之处，能够充满激情地为主而工作。我祈求你让你的力量始终作为我喜乐的中心，每天更新我心，你的喜悦是我真实的力量。
　　天父，尽管我单身，但帮助我完成你的工，并去成就你的旨意。直到你赐给我一位丈夫，愿我的心不被想要一位丈夫而折磨，却被你、你的话语、你的旨意和蒙你喜悦所充满。直到时候来临，帮助我保守我的眼睛，保守我的心思和意念都在于你。
　　天父，我在信心里仰赖你的话语，相信你会保守我的道路。在你的话语里，我有信心和无限的期待，在你最好的时间和旨意里，你必将以一位合适的丈夫祝福我。那时，希望你依然是我的全部成就和渴望。
　　奉耶稣基督的名祷告，阿们！

儒学“仁”与基督教“爱”的比较

儒学与基督教在中西方文化史上都有着至关重要的作用。因此，当近代传教士开始在中国传教时，两者的文化差异引发了一系列的冲突，简称教案。学术界一直立志于研究教案发生的文化原因，而研究仁与爱作为这两者的核心内容就显得尤为总要，只有从两者的根源上探其区别，才能更准确的理解近代中西文化的交流与冲突。
儒家传统中的仁
在中国文献中，仁并不是一个儒家独有的概念。儒、道、佛都使用仁来表达他们对于问题的看法。而第一个赋予仁以极为重要的意义，并最终把仁确立为儒家传统的基础是孔子。孔子生活在一个历史大变迁的时代，这一时期周王权不断衰落，各封建诸侯国的威势在不断上升。由于周王室权威消弱和诸侯国君主们的野心的膨胀，导致了诸侯国之间的政治斗争与军事混战及内部政治篡权越演越烈。旧的社会秩序已经被摧毁，新的社会秩序还未建立，人民陷于水深火热之中。孔子不堪忍受这种混乱无序的社会现实，决心拯救这个分崩离析的社会，以实现“老者安之，朋友信之，少者怀之”的理想。
在孔子的思想体系中，继承和发展了早期古代经典中关于仁的用法，把仁的提升到一个新的高度。古代传统把天与人、祖先与后代、圣人与普通人统一起来的基本精神都被孔子纳入到仁这个概念中。这样仁就成了一个既能表现人类优良美德，又能表现超越原则的概念。
从孔子以前的年代到孔子，再到宋明理学，儒家学者们对于仁的论述，有一个不断丰富与深入的过程。每一代的儒学者都是既继承了前人对于仁的含义的解释，然后再根据自己对于仁的新的理解为仁赋予新的含义。
对于仁的理解作出独特贡献的是：汉朝的董仲舒、宋朝的朱熹、明朝的王阳明。他们系统地提出了自己关于仁的学说，对于仁的解释反应了他们对于儒家世界观的独特理解。
董仲舒最为著名的就是天人合一学说，在探索人与天合一的过程中，他首先把仁与这个世界的创造者联系了起来，并把仁解释为“仁者所以爱人类也”。董仲舒同意孟子关于不仅要从人类行为的角度理解仁，而且要从天人合一的角度理解人的看法。他认为，天是人类与万物产生的根源。“天”作为人类的创造者，不仅生产出了人的身体，而且创造了人类精神。由此类推，仁就成为天的意志。在天的意志支配下及运作过程的创造力影响力中，人的生命力可以直接变成仁。通过积极地从事群体活动，进行个体道德修养，把仁这一普遍原则内化成为自己的特殊美德。无论是作为原则还是作为美德，仁只能存在于爱人而不是爱自己之中。
朱熹是宋朝新一代的儒家代表，他的最大贡献是把儒家传统中的理性主义引向完全成熟。朱熹反对当时流行的关于仁的理论。在这种流行的理论中，仁只是意味着与万物一体或者一种意识状态。与这些流行观点不同，朱熹特别指出仁不仅是一种意识状态，更是一种具有创造性与整合力的实践的力量。对于朱熹而言，人之仁得自于天地之心，而天地之心是产生万物的根源。仁渗透到善的行为、善的活动与善的意识状态等各个方面。朱熹把仁看作心之德、爱之理。由于“理”具有客观性，这样他对于仁的理解就与那些相信仁在本质上是心的主观性的理论观点是相矛盾的。对于后者来说，仁只存在于心中。这个心不仅仅是某个个体自己的心，而是整个人类的心。所以把仁定义为心，就自然导致这样一种结论：仁就是要使自己与宇宙合一。
但是以天地万物为一体来定义仁的理论，只是到了明代的王阳明才最终获得了最精致的论证和强有力的辩护。王阳明认为，此心即彼心，人心即天地之心。不仅人心都是相同的，人心与宇宙之心也是相同的。这种万有共同的心就是仁。因为人与万物具有同样的心与相同的仁，所以他们能够合为一体。王阳明把仁与宇宙等为一体。这一论证与孟子使用过的心理体验是一脉相承的。孟子认为，当看到一个幼儿即将落入井中时，任何人都会感到震悚与怜悯。王阳明论证说，这一事实证明人心之中的仁使其与该幼儿成为了一体了。当听到鸟在屠刀下悲鸣，人们也会激发其不忍之心。王阳明认为，这一事实证明了仁可以使人与植物动物一体。像同时代的许多儒家学者一样，王阳明把仁看做是所有美德的源泉。
通过对以上儒家关于仁的学说的三种解释，我们可以清楚地看到，从仁的观点来看，人因为具有仁的本性完全可以过一种道德的生活。仁是人类道德生活的推动力，赋予人以道德追求的能力。从人的观点看，仁必须在人类活动与实践中才能得以践行。要过一种德行生活，人首先要培养美德之根，要为促进仁的增长创造良好的环境，而学习和实践则是做到所有这一切的必要的方法和途径。
基督教传统中的爱
就像仁是儒家学说的灵魂一样，“神爱”是基督教学说的灵魂。基督教徒的共同信仰就是：上帝是爱之神，耶稣基督是爱的具体体现。与之相适应，基督教则是一种爱的宗教。
我们在日常生活中，对宗教之爱与世俗之爱常常不加区别，对理智之爱与情感之爱的细微差异也不去留心。有人认为，在每一种爱的用法背后都能发现其丰富的历史，而在爱的每一种用法中，人们都能通过不同的方法理解基督教的信条。但是事实是，在所有这些爱的用法中，只有一条对于基督教义发挥着至关重要的作用，是神爱学说的基础。这一用法表明爱是上帝与人、人与人自己之间的特殊关系。按照基督教学说的理解，人与人的关系是以人与上帝的关系为基础的，是对人与上帝关系的补充与丰富。基督教学说中的爱的关系具体概括为——神爱。神爱是一种自我主动给予的爱，既可以使上帝对人之爱或人对于上帝之爱，也可以是人对于自己同胞之爱。无论这种爱的表现形式如何，它都必须是一种发自内心的出自灵魂的，具有主动给予性质的爱。
《旧约》中所使用的爱在本质上是以神为中心的。无论人类之爱以什么形式出现，它总是从属于上帝之爱，只有以上帝之爱为基础才具有意义和价值。作为上帝与人之间的上下关系，爱总是沿着两个方向运动:上帝爱人和人爱上帝。但是上帝爱人这种自上而下的运动先于人爱上帝这种自下而上的运动。无论是在上帝对其子民的盟约中，还是在子民对造物主的信仰中，强调的重点总是放在自上而下的爱上，而人对上帝之爱只是上帝对人之爱的延伸。
耶稣继承了古老传统中关于上帝的神爱，其是所有其他形式爱的先决条件的思想，但在继承中他也以其独特的方式发展了《旧约》中关于上帝之爱的观念，使得怜悯与宽恕成为上帝之爱的核心内容。与《旧约》相比，《新约》中关于上帝之爱较少赋予人的群体而更多地赋予了人的个体，较少以个人的祖先为先决条件而是更多地以人们自己的生活与信仰为前提。上帝之爱被理解为上帝对于人类痛苦的怜悯与对于人类罪恶的源头。尽管人总是不断地违背着上帝的意志，人们还是坚信：一旦他们显示其对于上帝的爱与信仰，上帝还是会爱他们原谅他们。
在人对上帝的爱中，《新约》把爱解释为侍奉上帝或者像“奴隶”那样听命于上帝，忠诚的服从上帝的命令，顺从上帝的统治，并把寻求扩展对人类对上帝的信奉，作为一个人生命中高于其他任何目的的目的。但是爱耶稣并不是爱的唯一内涵。耶稣本人就把对于上帝的爱的内容加以扩展，使之也包含有对于他人的爱。“他人”这个词在这里不仅指组成过去的以色列人的那些人，即那些所谓的上帝造民，而且也指更为广泛的群体，甚至可能是指人类全体，尽管耶稣并没有明确地这样说。
因此，按照基督教的理解，在上帝与人类的关系中，上帝的爱具有优先性和决定作用，而人类之爱只是对于上帝之爱的回应；在人与人的关系中，根本的是来自于上帝命令的爱以及被耶稣所亲身证明的爱。这些基本内容决定了基督教神爱的神学导向，也同时渗透到了基督教学说的各个部分。
二者的差异与影响
第一，仁与爱的差异，部分导致了不同的政治体制。西方形成了依法治国的政治理念，而在儒学的影响下，中国则走上了以德治国的政治道路。儒学政治的主流学说认为，最重要的事情不是什么法律体系，而是美德的培养；国家治理不能只依靠制度，更重要的是靠德行“为政以德，譬如北辰居其极而众星拱之。”
第二，仁与爱的差异导致了中西文化对社会正义的不同理解。儒家学说的仁与基督教的爱都属于一种无私的对于他人的关怀，要在人们优先考虑满足他人利益与需要。在基督教精神中，爱与正义是紧密相连的，二者都包括在神爱之中。在正义中，爱促进了人类的繁荣，其目的不是为了个体需要的满足，而是为了人类共同事业的发展。在儒学那里，义在仁的现实化过程中，在仁的实现的过程中所起的作用于正义对神爱的作用相类似。仁的发展首先要通过自我修养，仁必须在义的协助下才能发挥作用，而“义”在一定条件下，指的是仁在社会关系中的具体表现，或者像孟子所说的那样“仁，人之安宅也，人之正路也。”
第三，如果我们能不仅在理论和学说上对仁与爱的含义作出研究，而且是对儒学之仁与物质利益的关系和基督教所谈论的爱对于社会改革的作用进行深入的探讨。那么我们的比较研究就会具有更重要的实践价值。在儒学思想中，提高经济发展，保障公共福利以及实现社会公正等等对于仁的时间具有巨大意义。但是儒学也不断地强调：只有通过道德修养，这些功利的目的才能得以实现。与功利上的成功相比，具有仁心更为重要。为了解决追求仁与考虑物质利益的关系，孔子首先把道德原则作为物质利益的标准:“不义富且贵，与我如浮云”。然后，孔子又把公共利益与个人私利分离开来，认为只有为公共利益考虑才是仁的一部分。个人的自私自利只能导致人的不仁。在儒学传统这一思想的影响下，个人主义在传统的中国政治与伦理中是不可能发展起来的。
而基督教并没有明确说明作为个体关心的爱，与作为社会改革之爱究竟是一种什么关系，也没有清楚解释对他人的爱怎样转化成为，改革那些阻碍爱之实现的社会机构。这一模棱两可的理论直接形成了极度教会的两重性：一方面它把宗教信仰提高到无与伦比所谓最高水平，这样就变成了高于其他类型的爱的律令；另一方面他也为基督教会与社会中反动力量结合找到了借口，这在中世纪向现代化转变的大动荡时期表现的尤为突出。
参考文献：
（1）德雷恩 许一新 《旧约概论》北京：北京大学出版社，2004
（2）德雷恩 胡青《新约概论》北京：北京大学出版社，2005
（3）孙尚杨《基督教与明末儒学 》 北京：东方出版社，1994.12
（4）吴雷川《基督教与中国文化 》上海：上海古籍出版社，2008
（5）姚新中《儒教与基督教》北京：中国社会科学出版社，2002